Ra'e Evidential

Story #1

(1)
ra'eEmbedded speaker-oriented evidential, slight surprise/ra'e scope over. Possible insertion of Sub 'ha': ...o-jopy ha ra'e	la	mbó-ipe	ha	nd-oi-katu-vé-i	o-sẽ	iguýgui.
Evid	Def.Det	snake-DOM	Conj	Neg-3Sg-can-more-Neg	3Sg-go.out	under-from

the snake [he realized] and he could not get out from under it.

a la víbora [había sido que] y no podía salir de debajo de ella.

Notes:

Embedded clause, embedded subject oriented, slight surprise.

Possible insertion of Subordinator ha: …o-jopy ha ra'e.

For G, both with and without ha is possible; M prefers without it. M appears to disprefer Subordinator ha, unless assertive strength is intended.

(2)
ha	upéi	hasý-pe	la	karai'y	o-guenohẽ	chupeOvert Direct Object Pronoun	ra'e.Matrix, speaker oriented evidentiality/slight surprise
Conj	then	fatigue-Loc	Def.Det	young.man	3Sg-remove	3.Pron.DO	Evid

and then in the end the young man took him out, it turns out.

y después a la cansada el muchacho lo sacó.

Notes:

Matrix, speaker oriented.

(3)
ha	o-mombe'u	chupe	mba'éicha-pa	la	mbói	o-ĩ	ra'eRa'e is goal oriented. Element of surprise.	hínaDoes not contribute to the temporality.
Conj	3Pl-tell	3Sg.Pron.IO	manner-Q	Def.Det	snake	3Sg.be.Loc	Evid	Emph/Assert

and told him how the snake was/had been (ra'e progessive)

y [ellos] le contaron [al caballo] como [la manera en que] estaba la víbora

Notes:

Ra'e is goal oriented.

The horse (goal/addressee of matrix verb ‘tell') is the one that ‘finds out'.

Element of surprise.

(4)
ha	mba'é-pa	la	karia'y	o-japo	hese	ra'e.Ra'e is goal oriented
Conj	what-Q	Def.Det	lad	3Sg-do	3Sg.Pron.Obl	Evid

and told him what the young man had done for him ra'e.

y lo que el muchacho le hizo.

Notes:

(Continuation of the sentence above)

Ra'e goal oriented.

The horse (goal/addressee of matrix verb ‘tell') is the one that ‘finds out'.

(5)
ani[ke]	che-mbotavy.	Ja-hechá-ta	moõ-pa	la	reime	ra'e,Ra'e goal oriented - Ra'e puts emphasis on the locative predicate.
Neg.Imp	1Sg-trick	1Pl-see-Prosp	where-Q	Def.Det	2Sg-be.Loc	Evid

"don't trick me. Let's go see where you have been,"

"no me vayan a enganãr. Vamos a ver donde es lo que estuviste,"

Notes:

Ra'e goal oriented.

[ra'e puts emphasis on the existential predicate]

The fox has hearsay evidence that the snake had been under the rock and wants to verify the evidence – evidential orientation is towards matrix subject. The subject is in the inclusive plural –it includes the speaker (the fox) and the addressee of the saying event (the snake), and possibly the speaker.

The one that recently discovered is the fox (speaker)/ not the snake (recipient), although both are included in the reference of the matrix subj.

(6)
ja-hecha	añeté-pa	la	rei-me	asy	ra'e.Matrix subject oriented
1Pl.Incl-see	true-Tot	Def.Det	2Sg-be.Loc	suffer	Evid

"let us truly see the place where you were suffering."

"vamos a ver de verdad el lugar [donde] estuviste sufriente."

Notes:

Matrix, subject oriented. (the matrix subject = speaker, indirect speech)

Again the fox has hearsay evidence of the situation in which the snake had been and wants to verify, but he uses a 1pl.inc subj, which includes speaker [=matrix subj] and the addressee [the goal].

[hasy ha ra'e also possible: …..jahecha añetépa la reime asy ha ra'e]

G is fine with Sub –ha; M prefers without it.

M's comments:

In the presence of Sub -ha there is emphasis on the predicate ‘reime asy'; if there is certainty on the state, it appears to clash with ‘ra'e' which signals lack of certainty; better if ‘ne' is added (although meaning is not the same): jachecha la reime asý-ne ha ra'e).

In the presence of 'ha' there is emphasis on the predicate ‘reime asy', with strong assertive force. The latter appears to clash with ‘ra'e' which signals lack of certainty; better if weak epistemic modal ‘ne' is added (although meaning is not the same): jachecha la reime asý-ne ha ra'e).

M allows drop with verb of saying; his example: Ha'e-ngo he'i oĩ-se(ha) ñanendive. (El dice que quiere estar con nosotros.)

With Sub -ha, more emphatic: he ‘really' wants to be with us.

Story #2

(1)
Iñepyrῦ-rã	guasu	oi-mo'ã	jatevu	o-ñe'ẽ	reínte	ra'e.Embedded matrix subject oriented
At the beginning	deer	3Sg-believe	tick	3Sg.-speak	in-vain	Evid

At first, the deer thought that the tick was speaking in vain.

Al comienzo, el venado pensó que la garratapa hablaba en balde.

Notes:

Embedded ra'e; no ha, speaker/narrator oriented. The narrator realizes that deer wrongly thinks that the tick is talking in vain (the narrator knows that that is not the case, as suggested by what comes next in the story). In this case, no subordinator ha is possible.

(2)
o-po	guasu	rumby	rague	rehe	ra'e.Matrix, speaker/narrator oriented
3Sg-jump	deer	behind	hair	Prep.Obl	Evid

jumped [caught] on the hair of the deer's behind.

saltó sobre [se prendió por] el pelo del trasero del venado, había sido.

Notes:

Matrix, speaker/narrator oriented; nimbo/ra'e marks the entire sentence in focus.

Story #3

(1)
la	ka'i-mi	ñane-mo-kyrỹi-rõ	ra'eEmbedded in conditional. Speaker-oriented, indirect discourse.	——he'i.
Def.Det	monkey-Dim	1Pl.Incl-Caus-tickle-when	Evid	——3Sg.say [the tiger]

"when the little monkey tickles us," said [the tiger].

"cuando el mono nos hace cosquilla había sido," dijo [el tigre].

Notes:

Ra'e: embedded in when-conditional.

[speaker (=the tiger) oriented: tiger realizes that it is pleasing when the monkey tickles them]

[Note that speaker (=the tiger) + other is also the implicit benefactive of matrix - predicate, impersonal 3P Spanish-based ‘i-gusto'; PG counterpart: o-ñe-ñandu-porãite (=Gustar)

I-gústo.ité[re]i-ko añete [ra'e]la ka'imi [ra'e]ñane-mokyrỹi-rõ ra'e –he'i [ha'e].

ra'e can appear after ‘la ka'imi' [emphasis on ka'imi]

ra'e can appear after ‘añete' [emphasis on añete]

In the context, ra'e is more natural at the end; without emphasis.

Note: word order (fronting of conditional) possible: la ka'imi ñane-mokyrỹi-rõ ra'e i-gústo-ité[re]i-ko

(2)
Ha'e	oi-mo'ã	o-soña	hínaContinuative	ra'e;Embedded ra'e, narrator/speaker oriented
He	3Pl-think	3Pl-dream	Cont	Evid

He thought he was dreaming;

El creyó que estaba soñando;

Notes:

Embedded ra'e: narrator (speaker) oriented: realization that tiger wrongly thinks that he is dreaming; no sub ha insertion; sub ha would shift orientation to matrix subj ‘the tiger'].

oimo'ã osoña [*ha] hina ra'e.

Alternative Word order: ra'e after matrix verb (in matrix clause): oimo'ã (ra'e) osoña (??ra'e) hina (ra'e).

(3)
hese	o-hó-vo	ra'eMatrix ra'e, speaker oriented	la	pytũmbý-pe.
3Pron.Dat	3Sg-go-goal	Evid	Def.Det	dark-Loc

him in the darkness.

-le en la oscuridad.

Notes:

Matrix ra'e; speaker-oriented: The monkey was already also touching him [=the tiger] in the darkness [the narrator realizes].

=Nimbo ra'e, ka'i o-pokó-ma avei hese ohóvo la pytũmbýpe [wide focus]

≠Nimbo ka'i ra'e o.pokó.ma avei hese ohóvo la pytũmbýpe. [narrow focus on subj]

Story #4

(1)(2)
nipo	ra'eMatrix ra'e, speaker oriented - Narrator realizes	chavurró-nte	o-ñe'ẽ	hínaContinuative	[ra'e]Either ra'e can be omitted	kavaju	ndive.
Part	Evid	donkey-only	3Sg-speak	Cont	[Evid]	horse	with

it turns out that it was only the donkey speaking with the horse.

había sido el burro nomás estaba hablando con el caballo.

Notes:

Matrix ra'e: speaker-oriented: narrator realizes.

Either ra'e can be omitted.

Story #5

(1)
o-guejy-	ha-gueSubordinator 'ha'	hoy'u	i-jyguá-pe	ra'eEmbedded ra'e: matrix subject oriented jaguareté's discovery/realization that the monkeys had come to drink there
3Sg.come.down-	Sub-Term.Asp	3Pl.drink	3.Poss-fountain-Loc	Evid

who had come down to drink in his fountain.

que habían bajado a tomar en su fuente (había sido que).

Notes:

Embedded ra'e: matrix subject oriented jaguareté's discovery/realization that the monkeys had come to drink there.

Presence of –hágue obligatory.

Different positions of ra'e, but changes meaning, namely what the discovery was: …o-pillá-ma [ohechakuaa] ka'i kuéra o-guejy-ha-gue (ra'e) hoy'u i-jyguá-pe (ra'e)

(2)
——Ma'ẽ,	o-manó-mbo	amigo	jaguarete	ápe	ra'eMatrix ra'e, speaker oriented - realization of the speaker/monkey	——he'i	ndaje.
——Look	3Sg-die-Part	friend	tiger	here	Evid	——3Sg.say	Report

"Look, the friend tiger died here, it appears," it is said that he said.

"Mira, murió aquí el amigo jaguareté, había sido," se dice que dijo.

Notes:

Matrix ra'e: realization of the monkey that is speaking. Direct discourse: the monkey as speaker.

Word order: Ma'ẽ, o-manó (ra'e) amigo jaguarete ápe (ra'e )–he'i ndaje.

First ra'e puts emphasis on the death; second ra'e has scope over the predicate (jaguarete's death at that place and puts emphasis on the place –and implies that it is strange that he would have died in that place)

-mbo [nimbo] introduces uncertainty.

(3)
Ha	jaguarete	oi-mo'ã	o-jorá-ta	chupe Overt Direct Object (DO) Pronoun	hikuái	ra'ẽ,Embedded ra'e, matrix subject oriented (juagarete's realization)
Conj	tiger	3Sg-think	3Pl-untie-Prosp	3.Pron.DO	3Pl.Pron.Subj	Evid

And the tiger thought that they would untie him [he realized],

Y el jaguareté creyó que le iban a desatar [se dio cuenta],

Notes:

Embedded ra'e: matrix subject oriented (juagarete's realization)

Both consultant accepts presence of sub ha in this case: oimo'ã ojorá-ta ha chupe hikuái ra'e

From M: there is certainty on the part of the matrix subject (closer in meaning to ‘imagine', as if he seeing events happening as in a movie)

Story #6

(1)
o-moĩ-mba-ite	ra'eMatrix ra'e, speaker oriented	la	káncha	puku-kue	javeve,	pe	kapi'í-pe	kuápe.
3Sg-put-Compl-Superl	Evid	Def.Det	field	length-Term	meanwhile	Dem	grass-Loc	inside

had meanwhile fully positioned themselves along the entire length of the field, inside the grass. [the narrator realizes]

se colocaron a lo largo de la cancha, dentro del largo pasto.

Notes:

Matrix ra'e: speaker = narrator oriented.

Story #7

(1)
Aguara	oi-kuaa-se	máva-pa	o-ú-va	ra'eEmbedded, wh-complement, matrix subject oriented	la	h.óga-pe	ojatapy.
Fox	3Sg-know-Des	who-Q	3Sg-come-Rel	Evid	Def.Det	3.Poss-house-Loc	3Sg-fire

The fox wanted to know who is the one that was making a fire in his house.

El zorro quiso saber quién es el que vino a hacer el fuego en su casa

Notes:

Embedded, wh-compl, matrix subj oriented.

Matrix subj finds out that someone made the fire in the house and he wants to know who did it.

Story #8

(1)
Mbohapy	ka'i	rupi	nimbo	i-kunpleáno	hínaAdds emphasis to the event.	ra'e,Matrix ra'e; speaker/narrator oriented; scope of ra'e marked by nimbo: monkeys' had birthday (the object of discovery)
Three	monkey	around	Part	3.Poss-birthday	Cont	Evid

Three monkeys had a birthday, it turns out,

Tres monos estaban de cumpleaños, había sido,

Notes:

Matrix ra'e; speaker/narrator oriented; scope of ra'e marked by nimbo:

monkeys' had birthday (the object of discovery)

Story #9

(1)
Ka'i	nimbo	oho	ojuhu	ra'eMatrix clause, speaker-oriented, nimbo introduces some uncertainty	peteĩ	leõ	akãngue
Monkey	Part	3Sg-go	3Sg-find	Evid	one	lion	head

It is said that the monkey went to find [go find] a lion's head

El mono había sido que se fue a encontrar una cabeza de león

Notes:

Ra'e: Matrix clause, speaker-oriented, nimbo introduces some uncertainty.

Story #10

(1)
nimbo	oi-pota	itereí	-maAspect/Focalizer '-ma'	hínaEmphasis on Superlative	ra'eMatrix, declarative, narrator-oriented	(ha'é-ngo	i-taryrýi	eterei	voi).Focalizer Particle 'voi'
Part	3Sg-want	Superl	-Asp	Cont	Evid	3.Pron.Nom-FOC	3Sg-greedy	Superl	FOC

it seems that he wanted it so much (he is of course very greedy).

había sido que demasiado ya quería (él luego es demasiado codicioso luego).

Notes:

Matrix; declarative; Narrator-oriented

(2)
Ha'e	hesarái	voiFocalizer Particle 'voi'	ma'erã-pa	o-u	ra'eEmbedded wh-complement. Matrix subject oriented	la	Peru	rendá-pe.
3.Pron.Nom	3Sg-forget	FOC	what.for-Q	3Sg-come	Evid	Def.Det	Peru	place-Loc.Prep

He had forgotten for what reason he came to see Peru.

Él se olvidó luego para que vino junto a Peru.

Notes:

Embedded wh-complement, no Sub 'ha' possible.

Matrix subject oriented: the king forgot why he came to see Peru (he realizes).

Story #11

(1)
(oi-mo’ã	la	pála-re	he’i	chupe	ra’e).Embedded, declarative, narrator/speaker oriented
3Sg-believe	Def.Det	shovel-Obl	3Sg.say	3.Pron.DO	Evid

(he thought he was talking about the shovels).

(creyó que le decía por las palas, había sido).

Notes:

Embedded; declarative; Narrator/Speaker oriented.

Subordinator ha absent; Presence of Sub ha not possible (if ha is added, perspective changes to matrix subj)

Story #12

(1)
mba’e-pa	o-japo	ra’eEmbedded, wh-complement of 'o-porandú', matrix subject oriented	ha’e	la	mba’e	o-guenohẽ	va’ekue	hikuái-gui.
thing-Q	3Pl-do	Evid	3.Pron	Def.Det	thing	3Pl-take.out	Rel.Distal	3Pl.Pron.Subj-Prep

what they had done with the things they had dug out.

qué habían hecho de las cosas que habían sacado ellos.

Notes:

Embedded, wh-complement of (o) porandu (ask)

Matrix subject oriented; Leokadio realizes that the addressee had taken things they dug out.

Alternative position of ra'e (with emphasis on wh-phrase): ha Leokádio oporandúma chupe mba'e-pa ra'e ojapo ha'e.

(2)
yvy-guý-gui	ra'e,Ra'e narrator/speaker oriented, part of matrix (edge of Rel clause)	la	entierro	reka	há-pe.Locational Relative Pronoun 'ha'
earth-under-Prep	Evid	Def.Det	dug	search	Rel.Loc

from under the ground, it turns out, searching for the treasure.

de debajo de la tierra, había sido que, buscando lo enterrado [=tesoro].

Notes:

Ra'e narrator oriented/part of matrix (edge of rel. clause); ra'e placement after verb oguenohẽ not possible.

(3)
nimbo	upéa	la	o-guenohẽ	va’ekue	ra'eMatrix clause, to the right of relative clause, narrator oriented	la	i-konpádre	Vito	ndíve:
Part	that	Def.Det	3Sg-arrive	Rel.Distal	Evid	Def.Det	3.Poss-friend	Vito	with

It turns out that it was what he had taken out with his friend Victor [narrator discovers]:

Había sido eso era lo que había sacado con su compadre Vito:

Notes:

Matrix; after relative clause [ra'e should not be able to appear after verb oguenohe].

Narrator-oriented (= who is also a participant in the story)

(4)
Ijypy-(gua)rã	ndajeReportative Evidential 'ndaje'	o-guenohẽ	hikuái	i-konpádre	ndive	ra'eMatrix clause, narrator oriented
3Sg.start-Irr	Report.Evid	3Pl-take.out	3Pl.Pron.Subj	3.Poss-friend	with	Evid

It is said that, to start with, they had taken out with his friend

Se dice que, para comenzar, habían sacado con su compadre, había sido que,

Notes:

Matrix ra'e, narrator-oriented.

In this case, ra'e can be located after the verb oguenohẽ or after ndaje or after ijypyrã, with different emphasis: Ijypy-(gua)rã (ra'e) ndaje (ra'e) o-guenohẽ (ra'e) hikuái i-konpádre ndive

(5)
(Nda-ha’é-i	ra'eMatrix Clause, narrator oriented	Leokádio	mba’e-rã,	ha	ha’e	o-guenohẽ-se	katu-ete.)
(Neg-Cop-Neg	Evid	Leokádio	thing-Irr	Conj	3.Pron	3Sg-take-Des	Mod-Superl)

It turns out that it was not for Leokádio, and he very much wanted to take it out.

No era, había sido, para Leokádio, y él demasiado quería sacarlo.

Notes:

Matrix, narrator oriented.

(6)
ha’e	oi-ko	i-patrõ	róga-pe-nte	voiFocalizer Particle 'voi'	ra'e.Matrix Clause, narrator's realization
3.Pron	3Sg-exist	3.Poss-boss	house-Loc-only	FOC	Evid

he actually lives in his boss’s house, it turns out.

él vive en la casa de su patrón luego, había sido.

Notes:

Matrix ra'e; narrator's realization.

(7)
[nimbo]	óro	meme-te	nimbo	ra'eMatrix, declarative, narrator oriented	la	i-kavaju	kangue!
[Part]	gold	habitually-Superl	Part	Evid	Def.Det	3.Poss-horse	bone

It was all gold, it turns out, the horse’s bone!

Era todo oro, había sido, el hueso del caballo!

Notes:

Matrix, speaker oriented.

The player (Subj of quotation) realizes.

Thought attributed implicitly to player = indirect discourse: narrator narrates from ‘player' PoV

According to consultant (M), if nimbo ra'e is at the beginning, it is narrator-oriented (it is no longer indirect speech): Nimbo ra'e óro meme-te la i-kavaju kangue

Story #13

(1)	Upéi	nimbo	o-u	hína	ra'e	heta	kavaju	ari-gua	la	pueblo-gui,	la	vía	yké-pe.
	After	Part	3-come	Cont	Evid	many	horses	on-source	def.det	town-from	def.det	train-rail	side-loc.

Then it turns out many came on horse-back from the town, at the side of the road.

Después había sido vinieron muchos montando a caballo del pueblo, al costado de la vía.

Notes:

Matrix, speaker/narrator oriented.

(2)	O-kyhyje	avei	hikuái	la	o-hechá-va-gui;	oi-mo'ã	hikuái	pláta-yvy-guy	ra'e.
	3-fear	also	3.Pron.Pl	def.det	3-see-Rel-from;	3-believe	3Pl.Subj	hidden.treasure	Evid

They were also very afraid of what they saw; they believed that it was the hidden treasure (they realized).

Tenían miedo también ellos de lo que vieron; creyeron ellos que era tesoro escondido.

Notes:

Embedded ra'e, implicit copular structure (with no overt copula): matrix subj oriented (hikuái ‘they').

For M: embedded 'ha' not possible, but if we change matrix verb to ohecha (see), then 'ha' is possible and it gives it assertive strength: Ohecha hikuái pláta-yvy-guy-ha ra'e.

(3)	Ndaje	peteĩ	garróte	o-poi	José	Domingo	–upéicha	héra	peteï-va	la	kavaju	ari-gua	ra'e	–la	Agui	oĩ-ha	ypy-eté-pe.
	Report	one	big.stick	3-throw	José	Domingo	–that.way	name	one-Rel	def.det	horse	on-loc	Evid	-def.det	Agustin	3-exit-Rel.Loc	close-Superl-loc

It is said that José Domingo threw a big stick –that was the name of one of those coming on horseback, it turns out - right next to where Agui was.

Se dice que tiro un garrote José Domingo- así se llamaba uno de los que venían a caballo, había sido que-cerquita de donde estaba Agustín.

Notes:

Matrix; narrator oriented.

(4)	Ha	nimbo	ha'e	nd-o-ké-i	voi	hína	ra'e.
	Conj	Part	3Pron.Subj	neg-3-sleep	Foc	Cont	Evid

And it turns out that she wasn't sleeping.

Había sido que ella no estaba luego durmiendo todavía.

Notes:

Matrix ra'e, narrator-oriented.

(5)	Ha	mama	oi-mo'ã	la	pláta	tuicha-itereí-va	ryru	ra'e	la	o-guerahá-va	hína	hikuái.
	Conj	mother	3-believe	def.det	money	big-too.much-Rel	container	Evid	def.det	3-take-Rel	Cont	3.Pron.Pl

And mother believed that it was the very big container that was the thing they were carrying.

Y mamá creyó que era el recipiente muy grande que contenía el tesoro lo que estaban llevando ellos.

Notes:

Embedded matrix, subject oriented (mother).

The embedded complement is an implicit copular structure (covert copula); ra'e is clitized on the embedded proposed focused Obj.

(6)	Ha	lo	mitakaria'y	oi-mo'ã	oi-kuaá-ma	mama	ra'e	la	o-jehu	vaekue	Aguí-pe.
	Conj	def.det	guys	3-believe	3-know-already	mother	Evid	def.det	3-happen	Temp.Distal	Augustin.DOM

And the guys suspected that mother already knew what had happened to Agustin.

Y los muchachos creyeron que mamá ya sabía lo que le pasó a Agustín.

Notes:

Embedded ra'e, matrix subject-oriented (the guys): realization/suspicion that the mother knew

From M: Subordinator ha is possible, but he strongly prefers without ha, in the context of the narration.

Ha adds strength, while oimo'ã… ra'e, introduces some doubt in this context: lo mitakaria'y oi-mo'ã oi-kuaa-ma-ha mama ra'e la o-jehu vaekue Aguí-pe.

Possible if we substitute oimo'ã with he'i (say), but substitution not natural in the context of the narration.

From M: Does not like very much to use ha with verb oimo'ã; he prefers to use orovia: Oimo'ã M hasy (??ha) vs. Orovia M hasyha. (Although he acknowledges that there are people that use it in conversation)

Story #14

(1)	O-poro-juka	la	karai	upéa	ha	oi-ke	la	ka'aguý-pe	ra'e.
	3-Indef-kill	def.det	man	Dem	Conj	3-go.in	def.det	forest-loc	Evid

This man killed someone and entered the forest again, it appears.

El señor este asesinó y entró en el monte, había sido.

Notes:

Matrix ra'e, narrator oriented.

(2)	"Nd-ai-kuaá-iko	che	a-ké-pa	ra'e	térä-pa	mba'e	la	oi-kó-va"	--he'i.
	Neg-1s-know-Foc	1S.Pro	1S-sleep-Q	Evid	but-Q	thing	def.det	3-happen-Rel	3.say

"I didn't know whether I was sleeping or what was happening," he said.

"No sabía si yo estaba durmiendo había sido o que lo que estaba pasando," dijo.

Notes:

Embedded ra'e, wh-complement; Matrix subj (=speaker) oriented

Subj realizes that he doesn't know whether he was sleeping (i.e. the presupposition: sleeping or not sleeping).

Story #15

(1)	Ha	upe	jeré-pe	o-ñerrancheá-ma	ra'e	che	kyvy	Alfonso	umía.
	Conj	Dem	around-loc	3-ranching-already	Evid	1S.Pos	younger.son	Alfonso	there.

And around there, it appears that my younger son was ranching there, it turns out.

Y por ahí, parece que anda rancheando mi hijo menor, había sido que.

Notes: